The interplay of Essential and Toxic Trace Elements in Prostate Cancer A Comprehensive Review of Risk Factors Prevention, and Clinical Implications.: A Comprehensive Review

Kamran Zaidi; Muhammad Rashid  Jamal; Qamar Zaman; Sabahat Javaid; Muhammad Bakir Hussain

Authors

Kamran Zaidi Associate Professor Department of Urology Lahore General Hospital Lahore Pakistan https://orcid.org/0009-0006-9168-5210
Muhammad Rashid Jamal Senior Registrar Department of Urology Allama Iqbal Teaching Hospital Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9510-4560
Qamar Zaman Senior Registrar Department of Urology, Lahore General Hospital, Lahore, Pakistan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1702-0246
Sabahat Javaid Professor, Department of Pathology, CMH Medical & Dental College Lahore, Pakistan. https://orcid.org/0009-0005-3277-1525
Muhammad Bakir Hussain I.M Sechenov University Moscow https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5425-9180

Abstract

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most common cancers in men, and is influenced by genetic, hormonal, environmental, and lifestyle factors. Recent research has expanded the understanding of PCa initiation and progression, and has emphasized the importance of both essential and toxic trace elements in this process. Trace elements are naturally-occurring, and many essential trace elements, like zinc and selenium, may provide a protective effect through antioxidant and host defense mechanisms. However, excessive exposure to trace element toxicants may contribute to PCa carcinogenesis through increased oxyradicals, oxidative stress and direct DNA damage, as well as hormonal dysregulation. Several socio-demographic variables like age, race, and socioeconomic status have an effect on PCa risk and clinical outcomes, while lifestyle factors such as obesity, diet, smoking and alcohol consumption shape the progression of disease. Importantly, nutrient and trace elements may also function as diagnostic biomarkers for PCa, but inconsistencies in findings limit their clinical application. Prevention-focused approaches are possible through healthy living, avoidance of toxins, and balanced nutrition. The aim of this review is to explore roles of essential and toxic trace elements in prostate cancer risk, associated factors, diagnosis, and prevention. Future research should address population-specific differences, mechanistic pathways, and prospective studies to clarify trace element interactions in PCa risk, diagnosis, and therapy.

Keywords: Prostate Cancer, Trace Elements, Zinc, Copper, Risk factors, Preventions.